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  <div class="section" id="module-ssl">
<h1>18.3. <tt class="xref docutils literal"><span class="pre">ssl</span></tt> &#8212; SSL wrapper for socket objects<a class="headerlink" href="#module-ssl" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h1>
<p>
<span class="versionmodified">New in version 2.6.</span></p>
<span class="target" id="index-553"></span><p id="index-554">This module provides access to Transport Layer Security (often known
as &#8220;Secure Sockets Layer&#8221;) encryption and peer authentication
facilities for network sockets, both client-side and server-side.
This module uses the OpenSSL library. It is available on all modern
Unix systems, Windows, Mac OS X, and probably additional
platforms, as long as OpenSSL is installed on that platform.</p>
<div class="admonition note">
<p class="first admonition-title">Note</p>
<p class="last">Some behavior may be platform dependent, since calls are made to the operating
system socket APIs.  The installed version of OpenSSL may also cause
variations in behavior.</p>
</div>
<p>This section documents the objects and functions in the <tt class="docutils literal"><span class="pre">ssl</span></tt> module;
for more general information about TLS, SSL, and certificates, the
reader is referred to the documents in the &#8220;See Also&#8221; section at
the bottom.</p>
<p>This module provides a class, <tt class="xref docutils literal"><span class="pre">ssl.SSLSocket</span></tt>, which is
derived from the <a title="socket.socket" class="reference external" href="socket.html#socket.socket"><tt class="xref docutils literal"><span class="pre">socket.socket</span></tt></a> type, and provides
a socket-like wrapper that also encrypts and decrypts the data
going over the socket with SSL.  It supports additional
<tt class="xref docutils literal"><span class="pre">read()</span></tt> and <tt class="xref docutils literal"><span class="pre">write()</span></tt> methods, along with a method, <tt class="xref docutils literal"><span class="pre">getpeercert()</span></tt>,
to retrieve the certificate of the other side of the connection, and
a method, <tt class="xref docutils literal"><span class="pre">cipher()</span></tt>, to retrieve the cipher being used for the
secure connection.</p>
<div class="section" id="functions-constants-and-exceptions">
<h2>18.3.1. Functions, Constants, and Exceptions<a class="headerlink" href="#functions-constants-and-exceptions" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
<dl class="exception">
<dt id="ssl.SSLError">
<em class="property">
exception </em><tt class="descclassname">ssl.</tt><tt class="descname">SSLError</tt><a class="headerlink" href="#ssl.SSLError" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
<dd>Raised to signal an error from the underlying SSL implementation.  This
signifies some problem in the higher-level
encryption and authentication layer that&#8217;s superimposed on the underlying
network connection.  This error is a subtype of <a title="socket.error" class="reference external" href="socket.html#socket.error"><tt class="xref docutils literal"><span class="pre">socket.error</span></tt></a>, which
in turn is a subtype of <a title="exceptions.IOError" class="reference external" href="exceptions.html#exceptions.IOError"><tt class="xref docutils literal"><span class="pre">IOError</span></tt></a>.</dd></dl>

<dl class="function">
<dt id="ssl.wrap_socket">
<tt class="descclassname">ssl.</tt><tt class="descname">wrap_socket</tt><big>(</big><em>sock</em>, <em>keyfile=None</em>, <em>certfile=None</em>, <em>server_side=False</em>, <em>cert_reqs=CERT_NONE</em>, <em>ssl_version={see docs}</em>, <em>ca_certs=None</em>, <em>do_handshake_on_connect=True</em>, <em>suppress_ragged_eofs=True</em><big>)</big><a class="headerlink" href="#ssl.wrap_socket" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
<dd><p>Takes an instance <tt class="docutils literal"><span class="pre">sock</span></tt> of <a title="socket.socket" class="reference external" href="socket.html#socket.socket"><tt class="xref docutils literal"><span class="pre">socket.socket</span></tt></a>, and returns an instance of <tt class="xref docutils literal"><span class="pre">ssl.SSLSocket</span></tt>, a subtype
of <a title="socket.socket" class="reference external" href="socket.html#socket.socket"><tt class="xref docutils literal"><span class="pre">socket.socket</span></tt></a>, which wraps the underlying socket in an SSL context.
For client-side sockets, the context construction is lazy; if the underlying socket isn&#8217;t
connected yet, the context construction will be performed after <tt class="xref docutils literal"><span class="pre">connect()</span></tt> is called
on the socket.  For server-side sockets, if the socket has no remote peer, it is assumed
to be a listening socket, and the server-side SSL wrapping is automatically performed
on client connections accepted via the <tt class="xref docutils literal"><span class="pre">accept()</span></tt> method.  <a title="ssl.wrap_socket" class="reference internal" href="#ssl.wrap_socket"><tt class="xref docutils literal"><span class="pre">wrap_socket()</span></tt></a> may
raise <a title="ssl.SSLError" class="reference internal" href="#ssl.SSLError"><tt class="xref docutils literal"><span class="pre">SSLError</span></tt></a>.</p>
<p>The <tt class="docutils literal"><span class="pre">keyfile</span></tt> and <tt class="docutils literal"><span class="pre">certfile</span></tt> parameters specify optional files which contain a certificate
to be used to identify the local side of the connection.  See the discussion of <a class="reference internal" href="#ssl-certificates"><em>Certificates</em></a>
for more information on how the certificate is stored in the <tt class="docutils literal"><span class="pre">certfile</span></tt>.</p>
<p>Often the private key is stored
in the same file as the certificate; in this case, only the <tt class="docutils literal"><span class="pre">certfile</span></tt> parameter need be
passed.  If the private key is stored in a separate file, both parameters must be used.
If the private key is stored in the <tt class="docutils literal"><span class="pre">certfile</span></tt>, it should come before the first certificate
in the certificate chain:</p>
<div class="highlight-python"><pre>-----BEGIN RSA PRIVATE KEY-----
... (private key in base64 encoding) ...
-----END RSA PRIVATE KEY-----
-----BEGIN CERTIFICATE-----
... (certificate in base64 PEM encoding) ...
-----END CERTIFICATE-----</pre>
</div>
<p>The parameter <tt class="docutils literal"><span class="pre">server_side</span></tt> is a boolean which identifies whether server-side or client-side
behavior is desired from this socket.</p>
<p>The parameter <tt class="docutils literal"><span class="pre">cert_reqs</span></tt> specifies whether a certificate is
required from the other side of the connection, and whether it will
be validated if provided.  It must be one of the three values
<a title="ssl.CERT_NONE" class="reference internal" href="#ssl.CERT_NONE"><tt class="xref docutils literal"><span class="pre">CERT_NONE</span></tt></a> (certificates ignored), <a title="ssl.CERT_OPTIONAL" class="reference internal" href="#ssl.CERT_OPTIONAL"><tt class="xref docutils literal"><span class="pre">CERT_OPTIONAL</span></tt></a> (not required,
but validated if provided), or <a title="ssl.CERT_REQUIRED" class="reference internal" href="#ssl.CERT_REQUIRED"><tt class="xref docutils literal"><span class="pre">CERT_REQUIRED</span></tt></a> (required and
validated).  If the value of this parameter is not <a title="ssl.CERT_NONE" class="reference internal" href="#ssl.CERT_NONE"><tt class="xref docutils literal"><span class="pre">CERT_NONE</span></tt></a>, then
the <tt class="docutils literal"><span class="pre">ca_certs</span></tt> parameter must point to a file of CA certificates.</p>
<p>The <tt class="docutils literal"><span class="pre">ca_certs</span></tt> file contains a set of concatenated &#8220;certification authority&#8221; certificates,
which are used to validate certificates passed from the other end of the connection.
See the discussion of <a class="reference internal" href="#ssl-certificates"><em>Certificates</em></a> for more information about how to arrange
the certificates in this file.</p>
<p>The parameter <tt class="docutils literal"><span class="pre">ssl_version</span></tt> specifies which version of the SSL protocol to use.
Typically, the server chooses a particular protocol version, and the client
must adapt to the server&#8217;s choice.  Most of the versions are not interoperable
with the other versions.  If not specified, for client-side operation, the
default SSL version is SSLv3; for server-side operation, SSLv23.  These
version selections provide the most compatibility with other versions.</p>
<p>Here&#8217;s a table showing which versions in a client (down the side)
can connect to which versions in a server (along the top):</p>
<blockquote>
<table border="1" class="docutils">
<colgroup>
<col width="39%" />
<col width="15%" />
<col width="15%" />
<col width="16%" />
<col width="15%" />
</colgroup>
<tbody valign="top">
<tr><td><em>client</em> / <strong>server</strong></td>
<td><strong>SSLv2</strong></td>
<td><strong>SSLv3</strong></td>
<td><strong>SSLv23</strong></td>
<td><strong>TLSv1</strong></td>
</tr>
<tr><td><em>SSLv2</em></td>
<td>yes</td>
<td>no</td>
<td>yes*</td>
<td>no</td>
</tr>
<tr><td><em>SSLv3</em></td>
<td>yes</td>
<td>yes</td>
<td>yes</td>
<td>no</td>
</tr>
<tr><td><em>SSLv23</em></td>
<td>yes</td>
<td>no</td>
<td>yes</td>
<td>no</td>
</tr>
<tr><td><em>TLSv1</em></td>
<td>no</td>
<td>no</td>
<td>yes</td>
<td>yes</td>
</tr>
</tbody>
</table>
</blockquote>
<p>In some older versions of OpenSSL (for instance, 0.9.7l on OS X 10.4),
an SSLv2 client could not connect to an SSLv23 server.</p>
<p>The parameter <tt class="docutils literal"><span class="pre">do_handshake_on_connect</span></tt> specifies whether to do the SSL
handshake automatically after doing a <tt class="xref docutils literal"><span class="pre">socket.connect()</span></tt>, or whether the
application program will call it explicitly, by invoking the <a title="ssl.SSLSocket.do_handshake" class="reference internal" href="#ssl.SSLSocket.do_handshake"><tt class="xref docutils literal"><span class="pre">SSLSocket.do_handshake()</span></tt></a>
method.  Calling <a title="ssl.SSLSocket.do_handshake" class="reference internal" href="#ssl.SSLSocket.do_handshake"><tt class="xref docutils literal"><span class="pre">SSLSocket.do_handshake()</span></tt></a> explicitly gives the program control over
the blocking behavior of the socket I/O involved in the handshake.</p>
<p>The parameter <tt class="docutils literal"><span class="pre">suppress_ragged_eofs</span></tt> specifies how the <a title="ssl.SSLSocket.read" class="reference internal" href="#ssl.SSLSocket.read"><tt class="xref docutils literal"><span class="pre">SSLSocket.read()</span></tt></a>
method should signal unexpected EOF from the other end of the connection.  If specified
as <a title="True" class="reference external" href="constants.html#True"><tt class="xref xref docutils literal"><span class="pre">True</span></tt></a> (the default), it returns a normal EOF in response to unexpected
EOF errors raised from the underlying socket; if <a title="False" class="reference external" href="constants.html#False"><tt class="xref xref docutils literal"><span class="pre">False</span></tt></a>, it will raise
the exceptions back to the caller.</p>
</dd></dl>

<dl class="function">
<dt id="ssl.RAND_status">
<tt class="descclassname">ssl.</tt><tt class="descname">RAND_status</tt><big>(</big><big>)</big><a class="headerlink" href="#ssl.RAND_status" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
<dd>Returns True if the SSL pseudo-random number generator has been
seeded with &#8216;enough&#8217; randomness, and False otherwise.  You can use
<a title="ssl.RAND_egd" class="reference internal" href="#ssl.RAND_egd"><tt class="xref docutils literal"><span class="pre">ssl.RAND_egd()</span></tt></a> and <a title="ssl.RAND_add" class="reference internal" href="#ssl.RAND_add"><tt class="xref docutils literal"><span class="pre">ssl.RAND_add()</span></tt></a> to increase the randomness
of the pseudo-random number generator.</dd></dl>

<dl class="function">
<dt id="ssl.RAND_egd">
<tt class="descclassname">ssl.</tt><tt class="descname">RAND_egd</tt><big>(</big><em>path</em><big>)</big><a class="headerlink" href="#ssl.RAND_egd" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
<dd><p>If you are running an entropy-gathering daemon (EGD) somewhere, and <tt class="docutils literal"><span class="pre">path</span></tt>
is the pathname of a socket connection open to it, this will read
256 bytes of randomness from the socket, and add it to the SSL pseudo-random number generator
to increase the security of generated secret keys.  This is typically only
necessary on systems without better sources of randomness.</p>
<p>See <a class="reference external" href="http://egd.sourceforge.net/">http://egd.sourceforge.net/</a> or <a class="reference external" href="http://prngd.sourceforge.net/">http://prngd.sourceforge.net/</a> for
sources of entropy-gathering daemons.</p>
</dd></dl>

<dl class="function">
<dt id="ssl.RAND_add">
<tt class="descclassname">ssl.</tt><tt class="descname">RAND_add</tt><big>(</big><em>bytes</em>, <em>entropy</em><big>)</big><a class="headerlink" href="#ssl.RAND_add" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
<dd>Mixes the given <tt class="docutils literal"><span class="pre">bytes</span></tt> into the SSL pseudo-random number generator.
The parameter <tt class="docutils literal"><span class="pre">entropy</span></tt> (a float) is a lower bound on the entropy
contained in string (so you can always use <tt class="xref docutils literal"><span class="pre">0.0</span></tt>).
See <span class="target" id="index-555"></span><a class="reference external" href="http://tools.ietf.org/html/rfc1750.html"><strong>RFC 1750</strong></a> for more information on sources of entropy.</dd></dl>

<dl class="function">
<dt id="ssl.cert_time_to_seconds">
<tt class="descclassname">ssl.</tt><tt class="descname">cert_time_to_seconds</tt><big>(</big><em>timestring</em><big>)</big><a class="headerlink" href="#ssl.cert_time_to_seconds" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
<dd><p>Returns a floating-point value containing a normal seconds-after-the-epoch time
value, given the time-string representing the &#8220;notBefore&#8221; or &#8220;notAfter&#8221; date
from a certificate.</p>
<p>Here&#8217;s an example:</p>
<div class="highlight-python"><div class="highlight"><pre><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="kn">import</span> <span class="nn">ssl</span>
<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">ssl</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">cert_time_to_seconds</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s">&quot;May  9 00:00:00 2007 GMT&quot;</span><span class="p">)</span>
<span class="go">1178694000.0</span>
<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="kn">import</span> <span class="nn">time</span>
<span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">time</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">ctime</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">ssl</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">cert_time_to_seconds</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s">&quot;May  9 00:00:00 2007 GMT&quot;</span><span class="p">))</span>
<span class="go">&#39;Wed May  9 00:00:00 2007&#39;</span>
<span class="go">&gt;&gt;&gt;</span>
</pre></div>
</div>
</dd></dl>

<dl class="function">
<dt id="ssl.get_server_certificate">
<tt class="descclassname">ssl.</tt><tt class="descname">get_server_certificate</tt><big>(</big><em>addr</em>, <em>ssl_version=PROTOCOL_SSLv3</em>, <em>ca_certs=None</em><big>)</big><a class="headerlink" href="#ssl.get_server_certificate" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
<dd>Given the address <tt class="docutils literal"><span class="pre">addr</span></tt> of an SSL-protected server, as a
(<em>hostname</em>, <em>port-number</em>) pair, fetches the server&#8217;s certificate,
and returns it as a PEM-encoded string.  If <tt class="docutils literal"><span class="pre">ssl_version</span></tt> is
specified, uses that version of the SSL protocol to attempt to
connect to the server.  If <tt class="docutils literal"><span class="pre">ca_certs</span></tt> is specified, it should be
a file containing a list of root certificates, the same format as
used for the same parameter in <a title="ssl.wrap_socket" class="reference internal" href="#ssl.wrap_socket"><tt class="xref docutils literal"><span class="pre">wrap_socket()</span></tt></a>.  The call will
attempt to validate the server certificate against that set of root
certificates, and will fail if the validation attempt fails.</dd></dl>

<dl class="function">
<dt id="ssl.DER_cert_to_PEM_cert">
<tt class="descclassname">ssl.</tt><tt class="descname">DER_cert_to_PEM_cert</tt><big>(</big><em>DER_cert_bytes</em><big>)</big><a class="headerlink" href="#ssl.DER_cert_to_PEM_cert" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
<dd>Given a certificate as a DER-encoded blob of bytes, returns a PEM-encoded
string version of the same certificate.</dd></dl>

<dl class="function">
<dt id="ssl.PEM_cert_to_DER_cert">
<tt class="descclassname">ssl.</tt><tt class="descname">PEM_cert_to_DER_cert</tt><big>(</big><em>PEM_cert_string</em><big>)</big><a class="headerlink" href="#ssl.PEM_cert_to_DER_cert" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
<dd>Given a certificate as an ASCII PEM string, returns a DER-encoded
sequence of bytes for that same certificate.</dd></dl>

<dl class="data">
<dt id="ssl.CERT_NONE">
<tt class="descclassname">ssl.</tt><tt class="descname">CERT_NONE</tt><a class="headerlink" href="#ssl.CERT_NONE" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
<dd>Value to pass to the <tt class="docutils literal"><span class="pre">cert_reqs</span></tt> parameter to <tt class="xref docutils literal"><span class="pre">sslobject()</span></tt>
when no certificates will be required or validated from the other
side of the socket connection.</dd></dl>

<dl class="data">
<dt id="ssl.CERT_OPTIONAL">
<tt class="descclassname">ssl.</tt><tt class="descname">CERT_OPTIONAL</tt><a class="headerlink" href="#ssl.CERT_OPTIONAL" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
<dd>Value to pass to the <tt class="docutils literal"><span class="pre">cert_reqs</span></tt> parameter to <tt class="xref docutils literal"><span class="pre">sslobject()</span></tt>
when no certificates will be required from the other side of the
socket connection, but if they are provided, will be validated.
Note that use of this setting requires a valid certificate
validation file also be passed as a value of the <tt class="docutils literal"><span class="pre">ca_certs</span></tt>
parameter.</dd></dl>

<dl class="data">
<dt id="ssl.CERT_REQUIRED">
<tt class="descclassname">ssl.</tt><tt class="descname">CERT_REQUIRED</tt><a class="headerlink" href="#ssl.CERT_REQUIRED" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
<dd>Value to pass to the <tt class="docutils literal"><span class="pre">cert_reqs</span></tt> parameter to <tt class="xref docutils literal"><span class="pre">sslobject()</span></tt>
when certificates will be required from the other side of the
socket connection.  Note that use of this setting requires a valid certificate
validation file also be passed as a value of the <tt class="docutils literal"><span class="pre">ca_certs</span></tt>
parameter.</dd></dl>

<dl class="data">
<dt id="ssl.PROTOCOL_SSLv2">
<tt class="descclassname">ssl.</tt><tt class="descname">PROTOCOL_SSLv2</tt><a class="headerlink" href="#ssl.PROTOCOL_SSLv2" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
<dd>Selects SSL version 2 as the channel encryption protocol.</dd></dl>

<dl class="data">
<dt id="ssl.PROTOCOL_SSLv23">
<tt class="descclassname">ssl.</tt><tt class="descname">PROTOCOL_SSLv23</tt><a class="headerlink" href="#ssl.PROTOCOL_SSLv23" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
<dd>Selects SSL version 2 or 3 as the channel encryption protocol.
This is a setting to use with servers for maximum compatibility
with the other end of an SSL connection, but it may cause the
specific ciphers chosen for the encryption to be of fairly low
quality.</dd></dl>

<dl class="data">
<dt id="ssl.PROTOCOL_SSLv3">
<tt class="descclassname">ssl.</tt><tt class="descname">PROTOCOL_SSLv3</tt><a class="headerlink" href="#ssl.PROTOCOL_SSLv3" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
<dd>Selects SSL version 3 as the channel encryption protocol.
For clients, this is the maximally compatible SSL variant.</dd></dl>

<dl class="data">
<dt id="ssl.PROTOCOL_TLSv1">
<tt class="descclassname">ssl.</tt><tt class="descname">PROTOCOL_TLSv1</tt><a class="headerlink" href="#ssl.PROTOCOL_TLSv1" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
<dd>Selects TLS version 1 as the channel encryption protocol.  This is
the most modern version, and probably the best choice for maximum
protection, if both sides can speak it.</dd></dl>

</div>
<div class="section" id="sslsocket-objects">
<h2>18.3.2. SSLSocket Objects<a class="headerlink" href="#sslsocket-objects" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
<dl class="method">
<dt id="ssl.SSLSocket.read">
<tt class="descclassname">SSLSocket.</tt><tt class="descname">read</tt><big>(</big><span class="optional">[</span><em>nbytes=1024</em><span class="optional">]</span><big>)</big><a class="headerlink" href="#ssl.SSLSocket.read" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
<dd>Reads up to <tt class="docutils literal"><span class="pre">nbytes</span></tt> bytes from the SSL-encrypted channel and returns them.</dd></dl>

<dl class="method">
<dt id="ssl.SSLSocket.write">
<tt class="descclassname">SSLSocket.</tt><tt class="descname">write</tt><big>(</big><em>data</em><big>)</big><a class="headerlink" href="#ssl.SSLSocket.write" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
<dd>Writes the <tt class="docutils literal"><span class="pre">data</span></tt> to the other side of the connection, using the
SSL channel to encrypt.  Returns the number of bytes written.</dd></dl>

<dl class="method">
<dt id="ssl.SSLSocket.getpeercert">
<tt class="descclassname">SSLSocket.</tt><tt class="descname">getpeercert</tt><big>(</big><em>binary_form=False</em><big>)</big><a class="headerlink" href="#ssl.SSLSocket.getpeercert" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
<dd><p>If there is no certificate for the peer on the other end of the
connection, returns <tt class="xref docutils literal"><span class="pre">None</span></tt>.</p>
<p>If the parameter <tt class="docutils literal"><span class="pre">binary_form</span></tt> is <a title="False" class="reference external" href="constants.html#False"><tt class="xref xref docutils literal"><span class="pre">False</span></tt></a>, and a
certificate was received from the peer, this method returns a
<a title="dict" class="reference external" href="stdtypes.html#dict"><tt class="xref docutils literal"><span class="pre">dict</span></tt></a> instance.  If the certificate was not validated, the
dict is empty.  If the certificate was validated, it returns a dict
with the keys <tt class="docutils literal"><span class="pre">subject</span></tt> (the principal for which the certificate
was issued), and <tt class="docutils literal"><span class="pre">notAfter</span></tt> (the time after which the certificate
should not be trusted).  The certificate was already validated, so
the <tt class="docutils literal"><span class="pre">notBefore</span></tt> and <tt class="docutils literal"><span class="pre">issuer</span></tt> fields are not returned.  If a
certificate contains an instance of the <em>Subject Alternative Name</em>
extension (see <span class="target" id="index-556"></span><a class="reference external" href="http://tools.ietf.org/html/rfc3280.html"><strong>RFC 3280</strong></a>), there will also be a
<tt class="docutils literal"><span class="pre">subjectAltName</span></tt> key in the dictionary.</p>
<p>The &#8220;subject&#8221; field is a tuple containing the sequence of relative
distinguished names (RDNs) given in the certificate&#8217;s data
structure for the principal, and each RDN is a sequence of
name-value pairs:</p>
<div class="highlight-python"><div class="highlight"><pre><span class="p">{</span><span class="s">&#39;notAfter&#39;</span><span class="p">:</span> <span class="s">&#39;Feb 16 16:54:50 2013 GMT&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span>
 <span class="s">&#39;subject&#39;</span><span class="p">:</span> <span class="p">(((</span><span class="s">&#39;countryName&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s">u&#39;US&#39;</span><span class="p">),),</span>
             <span class="p">((</span><span class="s">&#39;stateOrProvinceName&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s">u&#39;Delaware&#39;</span><span class="p">),),</span>
             <span class="p">((</span><span class="s">&#39;localityName&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s">u&#39;Wilmington&#39;</span><span class="p">),),</span>
             <span class="p">((</span><span class="s">&#39;organizationName&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s">u&#39;Python Software Foundation&#39;</span><span class="p">),),</span>
             <span class="p">((</span><span class="s">&#39;organizationalUnitName&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s">u&#39;SSL&#39;</span><span class="p">),),</span>
             <span class="p">((</span><span class="s">&#39;commonName&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s">u&#39;somemachine.python.org&#39;</span><span class="p">),))}</span>
</pre></div>
</div>
<p>If the <tt class="docutils literal"><span class="pre">binary_form</span></tt> parameter is <a title="True" class="reference external" href="constants.html#True"><tt class="xref xref docutils literal"><span class="pre">True</span></tt></a>, and a
certificate was provided, this method returns the DER-encoded form
of the entire certificate as a sequence of bytes, or <a title="None" class="reference external" href="constants.html#None"><tt class="xref xref docutils literal"><span class="pre">None</span></tt></a> if the
peer did not provide a certificate.  This return
value is independent of validation; if validation was required
(<a title="ssl.CERT_OPTIONAL" class="reference internal" href="#ssl.CERT_OPTIONAL"><tt class="xref docutils literal"><span class="pre">CERT_OPTIONAL</span></tt></a> or <a title="ssl.CERT_REQUIRED" class="reference internal" href="#ssl.CERT_REQUIRED"><tt class="xref docutils literal"><span class="pre">CERT_REQUIRED</span></tt></a>), it will have
been validated, but if <a title="ssl.CERT_NONE" class="reference internal" href="#ssl.CERT_NONE"><tt class="xref docutils literal"><span class="pre">CERT_NONE</span></tt></a> was used to establish the
connection, the certificate, if present, will not have been validated.</p>
</dd></dl>

<dl class="method">
<dt id="ssl.SSLSocket.cipher">
<tt class="descclassname">SSLSocket.</tt><tt class="descname">cipher</tt><big>(</big><big>)</big><a class="headerlink" href="#ssl.SSLSocket.cipher" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
<dd>Returns a three-value tuple containing the name of the cipher being
used, the version of the SSL protocol that defines its use, and the
number of secret bits being used.  If no connection has been
established, returns <tt class="xref docutils literal"><span class="pre">None</span></tt>.</dd></dl>

<dl class="method">
<dt id="ssl.SSLSocket.do_handshake">
<tt class="descclassname">SSLSocket.</tt><tt class="descname">do_handshake</tt><big>(</big><big>)</big><a class="headerlink" href="#ssl.SSLSocket.do_handshake" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
<dd><p>Perform a TLS/SSL handshake.  If this is used with a non-blocking socket,
it may raise <a title="ssl.SSLError" class="reference internal" href="#ssl.SSLError"><tt class="xref docutils literal"><span class="pre">SSLError</span></tt></a> with an <tt class="docutils literal"><span class="pre">arg[0]</span></tt> of <tt class="xref docutils literal"><span class="pre">SSL_ERROR_WANT_READ</span></tt>
or <tt class="xref docutils literal"><span class="pre">SSL_ERROR_WANT_WRITE</span></tt>, in which case it must be called again until it
completes successfully.  For example, to simulate the behavior of a blocking socket,
one might write:</p>
<div class="highlight-python"><div class="highlight"><pre><span class="k">while</span> <span class="bp">True</span><span class="p">:</span>
    <span class="k">try</span><span class="p">:</span>
        <span class="n">s</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">do_handshake</span><span class="p">()</span>
        <span class="k">break</span>
    <span class="k">except</span> <span class="n">ssl</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">SSLError</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">err</span><span class="p">:</span>
        <span class="k">if</span> <span class="n">err</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">args</span><span class="p">[</span><span class="mf">0</span><span class="p">]</span> <span class="o">==</span> <span class="n">ssl</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">SSL_ERROR_WANT_READ</span><span class="p">:</span>
            <span class="n">select</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">select</span><span class="p">([</span><span class="n">s</span><span class="p">],</span> <span class="p">[],</span> <span class="p">[])</span>
        <span class="k">elif</span> <span class="n">err</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">args</span><span class="p">[</span><span class="mf">0</span><span class="p">]</span> <span class="o">==</span> <span class="n">ssl</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">SSL_ERROR_WANT_WRITE</span><span class="p">:</span>
            <span class="n">select</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">select</span><span class="p">([],</span> <span class="p">[</span><span class="n">s</span><span class="p">],</span> <span class="p">[])</span>
        <span class="k">else</span><span class="p">:</span>
            <span class="k">raise</span>
</pre></div>
</div>
</dd></dl>

<dl class="method">
<dt id="ssl.SSLSocket.unwrap">
<tt class="descclassname">SSLSocket.</tt><tt class="descname">unwrap</tt><big>(</big><big>)</big><a class="headerlink" href="#ssl.SSLSocket.unwrap" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt>
<dd>Performs the SSL shutdown handshake, which removes the TLS layer
from the underlying socket, and returns the underlying socket
object.  This can be used to go from encrypted operation over a
connection to unencrypted.  The socket instance returned should always be
used for further communication with the other side of the
connection, rather than the original socket instance (which may
not function properly after the unwrap).</dd></dl>

<span class="target" id="index-557"></span></div>
<div class="section" id="certificates">
<span id="ssl-certificates"></span><span id="index-558"></span><h2>18.3.3. Certificates<a class="headerlink" href="#certificates" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
<p>Certificates in general are part of a public-key / private-key system.  In this system, each <em>principal</em>,
(which may be a machine, or a person, or an organization) is assigned a unique two-part encryption key.
One part of the key is public, and is called the <em>public key</em>; the other part is kept secret, and is called
the <em>private key</em>.  The two parts are related, in that if you encrypt a message with one of the parts, you can
decrypt it with the other part, and <strong>only</strong> with the other part.</p>
<p>A certificate contains information about two principals.  It contains
the name of a <em>subject</em>, and the subject&#8217;s public key.  It also
contains a statement by a second principal, the <em>issuer</em>, that the
subject is who he claims to be, and that this is indeed the subject&#8217;s
public key.  The issuer&#8217;s statement is signed with the issuer&#8217;s
private key, which only the issuer knows.  However, anyone can verify
the issuer&#8217;s statement by finding the issuer&#8217;s public key, decrypting
the statement with it, and comparing it to the other information in
the certificate.  The certificate also contains information about the
time period over which it is valid.  This is expressed as two fields,
called &#8220;notBefore&#8221; and &#8220;notAfter&#8221;.</p>
<p>In the Python use of certificates, a client or server
can use a certificate to prove who they are.  The other
side of a network connection can also be required to produce a certificate,
and that certificate can be validated to the satisfaction
of the client or server that requires such validation.
The connection attempt can be set to raise an exception if
the validation fails.  Validation is done
automatically, by the underlying OpenSSL framework; the
application need not concern itself with its mechanics.
But the application does usually need to provide
sets of certificates to allow this process to take place.</p>
<p>Python uses files to contain certificates.  They should be formatted
as &#8220;PEM&#8221; (see <span class="target" id="index-559"></span><a class="reference external" href="http://tools.ietf.org/html/rfc1422.html"><strong>RFC 1422</strong></a>), which is a base-64 encoded form wrapped
with a header line and a footer line:</p>
<div class="highlight-python"><pre>-----BEGIN CERTIFICATE-----
... (certificate in base64 PEM encoding) ...
-----END CERTIFICATE-----</pre>
</div>
<p>The Python files which contain certificates can contain a sequence
of certificates, sometimes called a <em>certificate chain</em>.  This chain
should start with the specific certificate for the principal who &#8220;is&#8221;
the client or server, and then the certificate for the issuer of that
certificate, and then the certificate for the issuer of <em>that</em> certificate,
and so on up the chain till you get to a certificate which is <em>self-signed</em>,
that is, a certificate which has the same subject and issuer,
sometimes called a <em>root certificate</em>.  The certificates should just
be concatenated together in the certificate file.  For example, suppose
we had a three certificate chain, from our server certificate to the
certificate of the certification authority that signed our server certificate,
to the root certificate of the agency which issued the certification authority&#8217;s
certificate:</p>
<div class="highlight-python"><pre>-----BEGIN CERTIFICATE-----
... (certificate for your server)...
-----END CERTIFICATE-----
-----BEGIN CERTIFICATE-----
... (the certificate for the CA)...
-----END CERTIFICATE-----
-----BEGIN CERTIFICATE-----
... (the root certificate for the CA's issuer)...
-----END CERTIFICATE-----</pre>
</div>
<p>If you are going to require validation of the other side of the connection&#8217;s
certificate, you need to provide a &#8220;CA certs&#8221; file, filled with the certificate
chains for each issuer you are willing to trust.  Again, this file just
contains these chains concatenated together.  For validation, Python will
use the first chain it finds in the file which matches.</p>
<p>Some &#8220;standard&#8221; root certificates are available from various certification
authorities:
<a class="reference external" href="http://www.cacert.org/index.php?id=3">CACert.org</a>,
<a class="reference external" href="http://www.thawte.com/roots/">Thawte</a>,
<a class="reference external" href="http://www.verisign.com/support/roots.html">Verisign</a>,
<a class="reference external" href="http://www.PositiveSSL.com/ssl-certificate-support/cert_installation/UTN-USERFirst-Hardware.crt">Positive SSL</a> (used by python.org),
<a class="reference external" href="http://www.geotrust.com/resources/root_certificates/index.asp">Equifax and GeoTrust</a>.</p>
<p>In general, if you are using
SSL3 or TLS1, you don&#8217;t need to put the full chain in your &#8220;CA certs&#8221; file;
you only need the root certificates, and the remote peer is supposed to
furnish the other certificates necessary to chain from its certificate to
a root certificate.
See <span class="target" id="index-560"></span><a class="reference external" href="http://tools.ietf.org/html/rfc4158.html"><strong>RFC 4158</strong></a> for more discussion of the way in which
certification chains can be built.</p>
<p>If you are going to create a server that provides SSL-encrypted
connection services, you will need to acquire a certificate for that
service.  There are many ways of acquiring appropriate certificates,
such as buying one from a certification authority.  Another common
practice is to generate a self-signed certificate.  The simplest
way to do this is with the OpenSSL package, using something like
the following:</p>
<div class="highlight-python"><pre>% openssl req -new -x509 -days 365 -nodes -out cert.pem -keyout cert.pem
Generating a 1024 bit RSA private key
.......++++++
.............................++++++
writing new private key to 'cert.pem'
-----
You are about to be asked to enter information that will be incorporated
into your certificate request.
What you are about to enter is what is called a Distinguished Name or a DN.
There are quite a few fields but you can leave some blank
For some fields there will be a default value,
If you enter '.', the field will be left blank.
-----
Country Name (2 letter code) [AU]:US
State or Province Name (full name) [Some-State]:MyState
Locality Name (eg, city) []:Some City
Organization Name (eg, company) [Internet Widgits Pty Ltd]:My Organization, Inc.
Organizational Unit Name (eg, section) []:My Group
Common Name (eg, YOUR name) []:myserver.mygroup.myorganization.com
Email Address []:ops@myserver.mygroup.myorganization.com
%</pre>
</div>
<p>The disadvantage of a self-signed certificate is that it is its
own root certificate, and no one else will have it in their cache
of known (and trusted) root certificates.</p>
</div>
<div class="section" id="examples">
<h2>18.3.4. Examples<a class="headerlink" href="#examples" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
<div class="section" id="testing-for-ssl-support">
<h3>18.3.4.1. Testing for SSL support<a class="headerlink" href="#testing-for-ssl-support" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
<p>To test for the presence of SSL support in a Python installation, user code should use the following idiom:</p>
<div class="highlight-python"><pre>try:
   import ssl
except ImportError:
   pass
else:
   [ do something that requires SSL support ]</pre>
</div>
</div>
<div class="section" id="client-side-operation">
<h3>18.3.4.2. Client-side operation<a class="headerlink" href="#client-side-operation" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
<p>This example connects to an SSL server, prints the server&#8217;s address and certificate,
sends some bytes, and reads part of the response:</p>
<div class="highlight-python"><div class="highlight"><pre><span class="kn">import</span> <span class="nn">socket</span><span class="o">,</span> <span class="nn">ssl</span><span class="o">,</span> <span class="nn">pprint</span>

<span class="n">s</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">socket</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">socket</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">socket</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">AF_INET</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">socket</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">SOCK_STREAM</span><span class="p">)</span>

<span class="c"># require a certificate from the server</span>
<span class="n">ssl_sock</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">ssl</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">wrap_socket</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">s</span><span class="p">,</span>
                           <span class="n">ca_certs</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="s">&quot;/etc/ca_certs_file&quot;</span><span class="p">,</span>
                           <span class="n">cert_reqs</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="n">ssl</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">CERT_REQUIRED</span><span class="p">)</span>

<span class="n">ssl_sock</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">connect</span><span class="p">((</span><span class="s">&#39;www.verisign.com&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mf">443</span><span class="p">))</span>

<span class="k">print</span> <span class="nb">repr</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">ssl_sock</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">getpeername</span><span class="p">())</span>
<span class="k">print</span> <span class="n">ssl_sock</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">cipher</span><span class="p">()</span>
<span class="k">print</span> <span class="n">pprint</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">pformat</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">ssl_sock</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">getpeercert</span><span class="p">())</span>

<span class="c"># Set a simple HTTP request -- use httplib in actual code.</span>
<span class="n">ssl_sock</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">write</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s">&quot;&quot;&quot;GET / HTTP/1.0</span><span class="se">\r</span><span class="s"></span>
<span class="s">Host: www.verisign.com</span><span class="se">\r\n\r\n</span><span class="s">&quot;&quot;&quot;</span><span class="p">)</span>

<span class="c"># Read a chunk of data.  Will not necessarily</span>
<span class="c"># read all the data returned by the server.</span>
<span class="n">data</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">ssl_sock</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">read</span><span class="p">()</span>

<span class="c"># note that closing the SSLSocket will also close the underlying socket</span>
<span class="n">ssl_sock</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">close</span><span class="p">()</span>
</pre></div>
</div>
<p>As of September 6, 2007, the certificate printed by this program
looked like this:</p>
<div class="highlight-python"><div class="highlight"><pre><span class="p">{</span><span class="s">&#39;notAfter&#39;</span><span class="p">:</span> <span class="s">&#39;May  8 23:59:59 2009 GMT&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span>
 <span class="s">&#39;subject&#39;</span><span class="p">:</span> <span class="p">(((</span><span class="s">&#39;serialNumber&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s">u&#39;2497886&#39;</span><span class="p">),),</span>
             <span class="p">((</span><span class="s">&#39;1.3.6.1.4.1.311.60.2.1.3&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s">u&#39;US&#39;</span><span class="p">),),</span>
             <span class="p">((</span><span class="s">&#39;1.3.6.1.4.1.311.60.2.1.2&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s">u&#39;Delaware&#39;</span><span class="p">),),</span>
             <span class="p">((</span><span class="s">&#39;countryName&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s">u&#39;US&#39;</span><span class="p">),),</span>
             <span class="p">((</span><span class="s">&#39;postalCode&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s">u&#39;94043&#39;</span><span class="p">),),</span>
             <span class="p">((</span><span class="s">&#39;stateOrProvinceName&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s">u&#39;California&#39;</span><span class="p">),),</span>
             <span class="p">((</span><span class="s">&#39;localityName&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s">u&#39;Mountain View&#39;</span><span class="p">),),</span>
             <span class="p">((</span><span class="s">&#39;streetAddress&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s">u&#39;487 East Middlefield Road&#39;</span><span class="p">),),</span>
             <span class="p">((</span><span class="s">&#39;organizationName&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s">u&#39;VeriSign, Inc.&#39;</span><span class="p">),),</span>
             <span class="p">((</span><span class="s">&#39;organizationalUnitName&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span>
               <span class="s">u&#39;Production Security Services&#39;</span><span class="p">),),</span>
             <span class="p">((</span><span class="s">&#39;organizationalUnitName&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span>
               <span class="s">u&#39;Terms of use at www.verisign.com/rpa (c)06&#39;</span><span class="p">),),</span>
             <span class="p">((</span><span class="s">&#39;commonName&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s">u&#39;www.verisign.com&#39;</span><span class="p">),))}</span>
</pre></div>
</div>
<p>which is a fairly poorly-formed <tt class="docutils literal"><span class="pre">subject</span></tt> field.</p>
</div>
<div class="section" id="server-side-operation">
<h3>18.3.4.3. Server-side operation<a class="headerlink" href="#server-side-operation" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
<p>For server operation, typically you&#8217;d need to have a server certificate, and private key, each in a file.
You&#8217;d open a socket, bind it to a port, call <tt class="xref docutils literal"><span class="pre">listen()</span></tt> on it, then start waiting for clients
to connect:</p>
<div class="highlight-python"><div class="highlight"><pre><span class="kn">import</span> <span class="nn">socket</span><span class="o">,</span> <span class="nn">ssl</span>

<span class="n">bindsocket</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">socket</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">socket</span><span class="p">()</span>
<span class="n">bindsocket</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">bind</span><span class="p">((</span><span class="s">&#39;myaddr.mydomain.com&#39;</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mf">10023</span><span class="p">))</span>
<span class="n">bindsocket</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">listen</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="mf">5</span><span class="p">)</span>
</pre></div>
</div>
<p>When one did, you&#8217;d call <tt class="xref docutils literal"><span class="pre">accept()</span></tt> on the socket to get the new socket from the other
end, and use <a title="ssl.wrap_socket" class="reference internal" href="#ssl.wrap_socket"><tt class="xref docutils literal"><span class="pre">wrap_socket()</span></tt></a> to create a server-side SSL context for it:</p>
<div class="highlight-python"><div class="highlight"><pre><span class="k">while</span> <span class="bp">True</span><span class="p">:</span>
   <span class="n">newsocket</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">fromaddr</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">bindsocket</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">accept</span><span class="p">()</span>
   <span class="n">connstream</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">ssl</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">wrap_socket</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">newsocket</span><span class="p">,</span>
                                <span class="n">server_side</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="bp">True</span><span class="p">,</span>
                                <span class="n">certfile</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="s">&quot;mycertfile&quot;</span><span class="p">,</span>
                                <span class="n">keyfile</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="s">&quot;mykeyfile&quot;</span><span class="p">,</span>
                                <span class="n">ssl_version</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="n">ssl</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">PROTOCOL_TLSv1</span><span class="p">)</span>
   <span class="n">deal_with_client</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">connstream</span><span class="p">)</span>
</pre></div>
</div>
<p>Then you&#8217;d read data from the <tt class="docutils literal"><span class="pre">connstream</span></tt> and do something with it till you are finished with the client (or the client is finished with you):</p>
<div class="highlight-python"><div class="highlight"><pre><span class="k">def</span> <span class="nf">deal_with_client</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">connstream</span><span class="p">):</span>

   <span class="n">data</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">connstream</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">read</span><span class="p">()</span>
   <span class="c"># null data means the client is finished with us</span>
   <span class="k">while</span> <span class="n">data</span><span class="p">:</span>
      <span class="k">if</span> <span class="ow">not</span> <span class="n">do_something</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">connstream</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">data</span><span class="p">):</span>
         <span class="c"># we&#39;ll assume do_something returns False</span>
         <span class="c"># when we&#39;re finished with client</span>
         <span class="k">break</span>
      <span class="n">data</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">connstream</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">read</span><span class="p">()</span>
   <span class="c"># finished with client</span>
   <span class="n">connstream</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">close</span><span class="p">()</span>
</pre></div>
</div>
<p>And go back to listening for new client connections.</p>
<div class="admonition-see-also admonition seealso">
<p class="first admonition-title">See also</p>
<dl class="last docutils">
<dt>Class <a title="socket.socket" class="reference external" href="socket.html#socket.socket"><tt class="xref docutils literal"><span class="pre">socket.socket</span></tt></a></dt>
<dd>Documentation of underlying <a title="Low-level networking interface." class="reference external" href="socket.html#module-socket"><tt class="xref docutils literal"><span class="pre">socket</span></tt></a> class</dd>
<dt><a class="reference external" href="http://old.pseudonym.org/ssl/wwwj-index.html">Introducing SSL and Certificates using OpenSSL</a></dt>
<dd>Frederick J. Hirsch</dd>
<dt><a class="reference external" href="http://www.ietf.org/rfc/rfc1422">RFC 1422: Privacy Enhancement for Internet Electronic Mail: Part II: Certificate-Based Key Management</a></dt>
<dd>Steve Kent</dd>
<dt><a class="reference external" href="http://www.ietf.org/rfc/rfc1750">RFC 1750: Randomness Recommendations for Security</a></dt>
<dd>D. Eastlake et. al.</dd>
<dt><a class="reference external" href="http://www.ietf.org/rfc/rfc3280">RFC 3280: Internet X.509 Public Key Infrastructure Certificate and CRL Profile</a></dt>
<dd>Housley et. al.</dd>
</dl>
</div>
</div>
</div>
</div>


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<li><a class="reference external" href="">18.3. <tt class="docutils literal"><span class="pre">ssl</span></tt> &#8212; SSL wrapper for socket objects</a><ul>
<li><a class="reference external" href="#functions-constants-and-exceptions">18.3.1. Functions, Constants, and Exceptions</a></li>
<li><a class="reference external" href="#sslsocket-objects">18.3.2. SSLSocket Objects</a></li>
<li><a class="reference external" href="#certificates">18.3.3. Certificates</a></li>
<li><a class="reference external" href="#examples">18.3.4. Examples</a><ul>
<li><a class="reference external" href="#testing-for-ssl-support">18.3.4.1. Testing for SSL support</a></li>
<li><a class="reference external" href="#client-side-operation">18.3.4.2. Client-side operation</a></li>
<li><a class="reference external" href="#server-side-operation">18.3.4.3. Server-side operation</a></li>
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